List of Figures

Figure 1.1. The scientific method

Figure 1.2. Hypothesis development for sheep coat colours, using inductive and deductive reasoning

Figure 1.3. The light spectrum

Figure 1.4. Cosmic microwave background radiation

Figure 1.5. Impact craters on the Moon and Earth

Figure 1.6. The solar system

Figure 1.7. Internal structure of Earth

Figure 1.8. Aurora borealis

Figure 1.9. Convection

Figure 1.10. Marine seismic surveying

Figure 1.11. Moon formation

Figure 1.12. Stratified rock outcrop at King’s Cove, Newfoundland

Figure 1.13. Steno’s laws of stratigraphy

Figure 1.14. Cross-cutting relationships in rock

Figure 1.15. Fossil assemblage

Figure 1.16. Geologic time scale

Figure 2.1. The jigsaw fit of the continents

Figure 2.2. Mesosaurus

Figure 2.3. Convection currents in the mantle

Figure 2.4. Upwelling, mid-ocean ridges, and spreading centres

Figure 2.5. Volcanic Island Arcs in (a) the Caribbean and (b) the Pacific

The red squares indicate active volcanoes

Figure 2.6. The Pacific Ring of Fire

Figure 2.7. Continent-to-continent plate convergence and orogeny through thrust fault slips.

Figure 2.8. Divergent oceanic plates

Figure 2.9. Divergent continental plates

Figure 2.10. The San Andreas Fault

Figure 2.11. The San Andreas Fault in the Carrizo Plain, California.

Picture taken looking southeast.

Figure 2.12. Transform faults at divergent plate boundaries (spreading centres)

Figure 2.13. The mosaic of plates and their rates of movement

Figure 2.14. Plate boundary observation station, Lassen Volcanic National Park, Mill Creek, California

Figure 2.15. Hotspot volcanism as in the Hawaiian Islands

Figure 3.1. Sodium chloride

Figure 3.2. Carbon

Figure 3.3. Relative sizes of common mineral-forming ions

Figure 3.4. 3D model of a silicate anion tetrahedron

Figure 3.5. Isolated tetrahedron silicates

Figure 3.6. Single-chain tetrahedron silicates

Figure 3.7. Double-chain tetrahedron silicates

Figure 3.8. Sheet tetrahedron silicates

Figure 3.9. Framework tetrahedron silicates

Figure 4.1. Igneous rock, with its constituent minerals and textures.

Figure 4.2. Felsic minerals

Figure 4.3. Mafic minerals

Figure 4.4. Bowen’s reaction series

Figure 4.5. The types of plutons

Figure 4.6. The three types of sediments and their origin

Figure 4.7. Burial, compaction, and cementation of sediments, creating rock

Figure 4.8. (a) Depiction of ripple/dune morphology and migration in rivers. (b) Video of ripples and ripple migration

Figure 4.9. Trough cross-bedding dune migration

Figure 4.10. Types of metamorphism and their location

Figure 4.11 Correlation between increasing metamorphic intensity and cleavage type and crystal size

Figure 4.12. Pressure–temperature correlation with metamorphic facies

Figure 4.13. The rock cycle

Figure 5.1. Location of compressional, tensional, and shear tectonic forces

Figure 5.2. Outcrop showing deformation of sedimentary rocks on the island of Crete, Greece

Figure 5.3. Brittle and ductile deformation

Figure 5.4. Geologic map of northern Ontario, with a cross-section Geological Survey of Canada, “A” Series Map 1263A, 1969, 1 sheet, https://doi.org/10.4095/109120 (Open Access)

Figure 5.5. Illustrations of dip and strike

Figure 5.6. Types of ductile deformation

Figure 5.7. Domes and basins

Figure 5.8. Joints in rock

Figure 5.9. Cataclastic textures

Figure 5.10. Large-scale tectonic deformation

Figure 5.11. Rifting and mountain building along a transform fault boundary

Figure 6.1. Disintegration of granite. Chemical weathering proceeds along the mineral boundaries and natural zones of weakness, such as cleavage planes

Figure 6.2. Natural zones of weakness in rock (joints and bedding)

Figure 6.3. Rock fragmented by frost wedging

Figure 6.4. Engineering classification of soil based on texture

Figure 6.5. Idealized soil profile

Figure 6.6. Brunisolic soil

Figure 6.7. Chernozemic soil

Figure 6.8. Crysolic soil

Figure 6.9. Gleysolic soil, with gleys and mottles

Figure 6.10. Luvisolic soil

Figure 6.11. Organic soil

Figure 6.12. Podzolic soil

Figure 6.13. Regosolic soil

Figure 6.14. Solonetzic soil

Figure 6.15. Vertisolic soil

Figure 6.16. Increase in weight (force) due to increase in angle

Figure 6.17. Cohesion between adjacent grains in soil

Figure 6.18. Surface tension in water

Figure 6.19. Geologic map of southern Ontario. Geological Survey of Canada, “A” Series Map 1263A, 1969, 1 sheet, https://doi.org/10.4095/109120 (Open Access)

Figure 6.20. Generalized cross-section of Ontario

Figure 6.21. Lateral extent of the Niagara Escarpment throughout the Great Lakes region

Figure 6.22. Detailed cross-section of Ontario from St. Clair to Toronto

Figure 7.1. Snowball Earth

Figure 7.2. Water ice crystals under 80 times magnification

Figure 7.3. Transformation of snow to ice

Figure 7.4. Furtwangler Glacier, Tanzania

Figure 7.5. The Colombia Glacier

Figure 7.6. Formation of valley glaciers

Figure 7.7. Icebergs

Figure 7.8. Striations and roches moutonées

Figure 7.9. Moraines and their positions in relation to the glacier

Figure 7.10. Drumlins

Figure 7.11. Water-laid glacial deposits

Figure 7.12. The Oak Ridges Moraine

Figure 7.13. Formation of the Oak Ridges Moraine

Figure 8.1. Anatomy of a stream

Figure 8.2. Channel patterns

Figure 8.3. Drainage basin delineation

Figure 8.4. Drainage patterns

Figure 8.5. The Delaware Water Gap

Figure 8.6. Gullies at the head of a stream

Figure 8.7. Laminar vs. turbulent flow in fluids

Figure 8.8. Grain size distribution vs. the stream velocity required to move grains

Figure 8.9. Ripple/dune bedforms and migration, creating cross-bedding

Figure 8.10. Sections used to determine the discharge according to the 60% rule

Figure 8.11. Formation of (a) alluvial fans and (b) river terraces

Figure 8.12. Spatial distribution of the components of the stream geosystem and the longitudinal profile

List of Interactive Figures

Interactive Figure 4.1. Texture/composition classification of igneous rock

Interactive Figure 4.2. Depositional sedimentary environments

Interactive Figure 4.3. Classification of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks

Interactive Figure 4.4. Classification of biological sedimentary rock

Interactive Figure 4.5. Classification of chemical sedimentary rock

Interactive Figure 4.6. Pressure–temperature grading of metamorphic rocks

List of Animations

Animation 1.1. Early solar system nebula and the transition to the solar system disc

Animation 1.2. Axial precession of Earth’s axis of rotation through time

Animation 1.3. How unconformities form

Animation 2.1. Creation of “striped” seafloor

Animation 2.2a. Density

Animation 2.2b. Convection currents

Animation 2.3. Oceanic to oceanic plate convergence

Animation 2.4. Oceanic to continental plate convergence

Animation 2.5. The breakup of Pangaea

Animation 3.1. Anatomy of a carbon atom

Animation 5.1. Time-lapse of the deformation caused by compressive forces from continent–continent convergence

Animation 7.1. Arctic ice cap and Antarctic continental glacier/ice sheet

Animation 7.2. Development of erosional features before glaciation, during glaciation, and after glaciation

Animation 8.1. Stream floodplain development

Animation 8.2. Superposed and antecedent streams

Animation 8.3. Sediment saltation

List of Videos

Video 1.1. The Big Bang

Video 1.2. The half-life of a radioactive isotope

Video 3.1. Cleavage

Video 3.2. Fracture

Video 3.3. Effervescent reaction of calcite with dilute hydrochloric acid

Video 4.1. Volcanic eruption of Mount Etna in Sicily

Video 4.2. Stream energy difference in the headwaters and the floodplain

Video 4.3. A graded bedding sequence at the top of the stratigraphic unit

Figure 4.8. (b) Video of ripples and ripple migration

Video 4.4. Bioturbation structures in sedimentary rock

Video 6.1. The natural angle of repose (angle of internal friction), in sand vs. gravel

Video 6.2. Mass movement due to slope angles steeper than the natural angle of repose, in sand vs. gravel

Video 6.3. Water in dry sand vs. fully saturated sand

Video 6.4. The Great Unconformity exposed in Ontario

Video 6.5. The Niagara Escarpment

Video 7.3. Drumlins near Peterborough, Ontario

Video 7.4. Eskers near Peterborough, Ontario

Video 8.1. Headward erosion

List of Tables

Table 3.1. Moh’s Scale of Hardness

Table 3.2. Common minerals and their physical properties

Table 4.1. Siliclastic sediments’ size, shape, and sorting

Table 4.2. Classification of foliated metamorphic rocks

Table 4.3. Classification of granoblastic metamorphic rocks and their correlation to their parent rock and metamorphic environment

Table 4.4. Metamorphic facies and their corresponding metamorphic environment

Table 4.5. Interrelations between rocks and processes in the rock cycle

Table 5.1. Types of brittle deformation

Table 6.1. Relative stabilities of common rock-forming minerals

Table 6.2. Classification of Mass Movements

Table 7.1. Ice as a mineral